AMPHIBIOUS WARFARESeeing this, Caesar ordered the warship – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transport, and likely to impress the native more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be remove a short distance from the others, and then rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position slings, bows, and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This maneuver was highly successful. Scared by strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines, the native halted and retreated a little.
[1]Catatan di atas merupakan antara catatan terawal mengenai konsep peperangan amfibi (Amphibious Warfare). Catatan ini ditulis ketika Julius Caesar meminpin angkatan perangnya menyerang Britain pada tahun 55 BC. Beberapa strategi telah digunakan oleh Caesar di operasi ini, antaranya
Pengunaan kapal perang yang lebih tangkas dan senang di kemudikan untuk tujuan penyerangan pantai
Penggunaan senjata seperti meriam, panah dan menjanik dari atas dek kapal perang tersebut bagi tujuan pengeboman (bombardment) pantai.
Taktik psykologi dengan mengunakan teknik, peralatan dan senjata yang moden bagi mengertak musuh.
Penggunaan taktik pengeboman pantai (shore bombardment) merupakan salah satu teknik yang sering digunakan. Sebagai contoh Commodore Edward Preble telah melakukan pengeboman ke atas Bandar dan perlabuhan Tripoli 200 tahun dahulu.
[2]DOCTRINEApa itu doktrin? Menurut kamus
New Webster’s Dictionary terbitan tahun 1975, doktrin bermaksud;
“That which is taught; a body or system of teaching relating to a particular subject; a particular principle taught or advocated; a tenet or dogma.” [3] Ia juga ditafsirkan sebagai;
“principle or teaching.” [4] Sejarah merakamkan beberapa doktrin terkenal telah digariskan oleh beberapa tokoh dunia, antaranya:
1. Truman Doctrine, March 1947 - President Truman declared that the United States would help any free nation resist Communist aggression (attack).
[5]2. Nixon Doctrine – “In future, we would supply arms and assistance only those nations that would supply their own manpower to defend themselves.”
[6]3. Monroe Doctrine, Dec. 2, 1823 – “It supported the independent nations of the Western Hemisphere against European interference "for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny." The doctrine said also that the American continents were "henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers."
[7]4. Polk Doctrine - "our settled policy, that no further European colony or dominion shall, with our consent, be planted or established on any part of the North American Continent."
[8]5. Calhoun Doctrine - each U.S. state had a right to nullify (reject) national laws.
[9]6. Teddy Roosevelt Doctrine, 1903 – “speak softly and carry a big stick: you will go far.”
[10]7. Stokely Carmichael Doctrine - urges black Americans to gain political and economic control of their own communities. It also urges them to form their own standards and reject the values of white America. It rejects complete nonviolence, and calls for blacks to meet violence with violence.
[11]8. Eldridge Cleaver - blacks must organize politically so they can deal with white society from a position of strength.
[12]9. Luis Maria Drago, 1907 - that no European country could use public debt as an excuse for armed intervention or for the occupation of American territory.
[13]10. Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957 - pledged U.S. financial and military aid to any Middle East nation that asked for help against Communist aggression.
[14]11. Stimson Doctrine on Manchuria, 1931 - the United States would recognize no changes made in Manchuria in violation of treaties.
[15]MONTH of BATTLE’S
“Battles you prevent can be victories even sweeter than the battles you win.”
- Tom Clancy
[16]January
The Battle of New Orleans – dikenali juga sebagai “The Needless battle”, ini kerana petempuran yang berlaku pada 8 Januari 1815 ini sepatutnya tidak terjadi. Disebabkan perhubungan komunikasi yang sukar pada ketika itu menyebabkan kedua belah pihak iaitu Tentera British dan Pihak Amerika Syarikat tidak mengetahui bahawa satu perjanjian damai telah dimeterai oleh kedua –dua kerajaan 15 hari sebelum itu. Ghent Treaty yang dipersetujui oleh pihak British dan Amerika itu Cuma diketahui sebulan kemudian. Dalam peperangan itu pihak British dengan 8,000 orang bala tentera yang diketuai oleh General Sir Edward Pakenham telah menyerang Bandar New Orleans yang dikawal oleh tentera Amerika Syarikat yang diketuai oleh General Andrew Jackson, dalam peperangan itu tentera British telah kehilangan hampir 1,500 orang termasuk ketua mereka, General Pakenham.
Battle of Benin – on January 1977, 60 white and 30 black mercenaries was attack the West African country of Benin.
[17]February
The Russo-Japanese War began on Feb. 8, 1904, when Japan attacked Lushun (also called Port Arthur) in Manchuria. It ended on Sept. 5, 1905, with the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth.
March
Battle of Waynesboro, Virginia - on March 2, 1865, Union General George Custer’s troops rout Confederate General Jubal Early’s force, bringing an end to fighting in the Shenandoah Valley.
Germany Invaded Czechoslovakia – on 6am, 13 March 1939.
[18]April
US – German War. The United States had a Regular Army of only 128,000 men when it declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
Battle of Shiloh – on April 6 - 7, 1862, one of the great battles of the American Civil War
Battle of Chancellorsville – on April 27, 1863. During these battles, General Stonewall Jackson was killed.
Battle of Vimy Ridge – on April 9, 1917, Canadian Corps captured Vimy Ridge, a strategically located hill near the town of Arras, in Northern France.
May
The Battles of the Coral Sea – on May 1942, American warship met the Japanese force in the Coral Sea, Northern of Australia.
Mexican War (1846-1848) was fought between the United States and Mexico over disagreements that had been accumulating for two decades. In the course of the war, United States forces invaded Mexico and occupied the capital, Mexico City. By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquired from Mexico the regions of California, Nevada, and Utah, most of Arizona and New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. But many historians believe the war was an unnecessary attack on a weaker nation. (May 13, 1846, Congress declared war on Mexico)
May 1809, Battle of Aspern. Incurring heavy losses, Napoleon suffered by the Archduke Charles his 1st defeat. Subsequently the Russian and Polish allies advanced to Cracow…
[19]June
Battle of Gettysburg – in June 1863, at little town of Gettysburg. Union Armies was commanded by General George G. Meade.
Battle of Kosovo – was fought in June 1389 in southern Serbia. In the battle, an army of Srebs, Bosnians, Albanians, and others faced Ottoman invader. Both the Serb ruler Lazar, and the leader of the Ottomans, Murad I, were killed.
Battle of Bunker Hill – on June 1775, was the bloodiest battle of the Revolutionary War in America. More than 1,000 British soldiers and about 400 American patriots were killed or wounded.
Waterloo, Battle of, fought on June 18, 1815, was the final battle of the French military genius, Napoleon Bonaparte. It put an end to his political ambitions to rule Europe. The battle took place at Waterloo, a small town near Brussels. The two armies were about equal in size. Napoleon had about 74,000 troops, and superior cavalry and artillery. Wellington had about 67,000 troops. He placed them in a strong defensive position.
December
Battle of Austerlitz. 2 December 1805. …had resulted in a brilliant Napoleonic victory. Prussian mediation came too late.
[20]Footnotes[1] Carey, John. Ed.
Eye-Witness to History. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1987. Page 12.
[2] Hawkins, William R.
What not to learn from Afghanistan: Military Policy, US. Internet:
http://www.looksmart.com/[3] Entrée: doctrine.
New Webster Dictionary. Illinois: Belair Publishing, 1975. Page 152.
[4] Entrée: doctrine.
American Dictionary, 2nd Edition. New York: Random House, 1995.Page 83
[5] World Book Encyclopedia 2002, Deluxe Premier Edition. CD. World Book
[6] The Haldeman Diaries, by HR Haldeman. Berkley, New York (1995)
[7] World Book. Ibid
[8] Ibid
[9] World Book Encyclopedia 2002, Deluxe Premier Edition. CD. World Book
[10] Edmund, Morris.
Theodore Rex. New York: The Modern Library, 2001
[11] World Book. Ibid
[12] Ibid
[13] Ibid
[14] Ibid
[15] Ibid
[16] Clancy, Tom.
Armoured Warfare. London: Harper Collins Publisher, 1996. Page 196
[17] Ripley, Tim.
Mercenaries: Soldiers of Fortune. Bristol: Parragon, 1997. Page 31
[18] Matthews, Rupert.
Hitler: Military Commander. Leicester: Capella, 2003. Page 122
[19] Kinder, Hermann, and Werner Hilgemann.
The Penguin Atlas of World History. Vol. II. Trans. Ernest A Menze. London: Penguin Books, 1978. pp29
[20] Kinder, Hermann, and Werner Hilgemann.
The Penguin Atlas of World History. Vol. II. Trans. Ernest A Menze. London: Penguin Books, 1978. pp25
